One of the most critical technological challenges embedded in the electrification of future aircraft revolves around the thermal management of batteries and fuel cells. An innovative idea involves using the aircraft’s aerodynamic surfaces to dissipate the extra heat, thereby reducing the impact that traditional thermal management systems (e.g. ram air heat exchanger) have on the overall aerodynamic efficiency of the aircraft. However, the limited experimental research addressing the influence of a heated surface on the stability and transition of the crossflow instability (CFI) hinders the assessment of the aerodynamic impact of this technology for future aircraft, where swept wings are ubiquitous. Thus, the objective of this work is to experimentally study the effect of a heated wall on the stability and final breakdown of CF vortices. To do so, experiments are conducted on a 45◦ swept flat plate wind tunnel model, where the surface temperature is increased by means of a surface-embedded electrical heater, yielding a mean wall-temperature ratio of T _w/T _∞ = 1.055. Overall, the experimental (i.e. HWA) and numerical (i.e. CLST) results show that wall heating leads to significant destabilization of the stationary CFI. Interestingly, a spectral analysis of the HWA signal reveals substantial amplification of the traveling CF mode under wall-heating conditions, which in turn appears significantly more destabilized than the stationary CF mode. Additionally, inspection of the high-frequency content in the HWA measurements indicates premature breakdown of the CF vortices and advancement of the laminar-turbulent transition by Δ _x/c _x = 6.3% with wall heating. The results presented in this work render a first insight into the impact of a non-adiabatic wall on the development of the crossflow instability and subsequent breakdown to turbulence.

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A new experimental facility named Swept Transition Experimental Platform (STEP) has been designed and built for detailed studies of crossflow instability and its interaction with surface irregularities and varying wall temperature conditions. The STEP is designed for use in the anechoic low-turbulence wind tunnel facility at the Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). The new facility consists of a swept flat-plate model with a movable leading edge capable of precisely translating to create forward/backward-facing step irregularities. In addition, the plate’s wall temperature can be adjusted to study the potential of thermal laminar flow control. An adjustable pressure body provides the favorable pressure distribution required to enhance the development of crossflow instability. Static pressure measurements are conducted to characterize the nominal pressure distribution. In addition, detailed hot-wire measurements and theoretical stability calculations reveal that the combination of discrete roughness elements, pressure distribution, and experimental facility allows for a detailed study of the development of crossflow instability in the linear and non-linear growth regime. Consequently, the STEP enables further fundamental research on laminar flow control at TU Delft.@en

The market growth expected for commercial aviation in the coming decades and the increasing social awareness regarding the effects of global warming are driving significant technological developments necessary for emission reduction in future transport aircraft. From the aerodynamics perspective, a significant increase in aircraft efficiency can be obtained by applying Laminar Flow Control (LFC) techniques. The objective of LFC techniques is to reduce the skin-friction drag component by delaying the laminar-turbulent transition through the stabilisation of boundary-layer instabilities. Relevant to high-subsonic transport aircraft is the development of Crossflow (CF) instability, which manifests as a series of co-rotating vortices inside the boundarylayer flow on swept aerodynamic surfaces...@en

This work presents an experimental and numerical investigation jointly conducted by TU Delft and DLR on Tollmien-Schlichting (TS) waves interaction with a Forward-Facing Step (FFS). Experiments are conducted at the TU Delft low-turbulence anechoic wind tunnel on an unswept flat plate model. Single-frequency disturbances are introduced using controlled acoustic excitation. The temporal response of the flow in the vicinity of the step is measured using Hot-Wire Anemometry (HWA). In addition, the global effect of the step on laminar-turbulent transition is captured using Infrared Thermography (IR). Two-dimensional (2-D) Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) performed at DLR provide detailed information at the step. Experimental and DNS results in clean and step case conditions present very good agreement. Both methods predict large distortion of the TS waves downstream of the step, where DNS results present different growth trends between |û| and |(equation presented)| components of the TS waves. Furthermore, negative and positive regions of the production term are observed to correlate with streamwise positions where the disturbances appear tilted in and against the mean shear, respectively. These findings point towards the presence of different growth mechanisms triggered by the step which could modify the level of amplification of disturbances far downstream.

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Experiments have been conducted on a swept wing model in a low-turbulence wind tunnel at chord Reynolds number of to investigate the unsteady interaction of a forward-facing step (FFS) with incoming stationary crossflow (CF) vortices. The impact of varying the FFS height on the development and growth of primary and secondary CF disturbances and the ensuing laminar-turbulent transition is quantified through detailed hot-wire anemometry and infrared thermography measurements. The presence of the FFS results in either a critical (i.e. moderate transition advancement) or a supercritical behaviour (i.e. transition advancing abruptly to the FFS location). The arrival of the forced stationary CF vortices at the step is accompanied by their amplification. Unsteady analysis for the critical cases indicates temporal velocity fluctuations following closely the development of the baseline configuration (i.e. agreeing with the development of secondary instabilities). Consequently, laminar breakdown originates from the outer side of the upwelling region of the CF vortices. In contrast, for the supercritical FFS, the laminar breakdown unexpectedly originates from the inner side of the upwelling region. Evidence points to an unsteady mechanism possibly supported by locally enhanced spanwise-modulated shears and the recirculation region downstream of the FFS edge. This mechanism appears to govern the abrupt tripping of the flow in supercritical step cases. The findings in this work provide insight into the unsteady FFS-CF vortex interaction, which is pivotal to understanding the influence of an FFS on the laminar-turbulent boundary-layer transition in swept aerodynamic surfaces.

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The impact of a forward-facing step (FFS) on the development of stationary crossflow instability is investigated on a swept wing model in a low-turbulence wind tunnel at chord Reynolds number of. Infrared thermography and particle image velocimetry measurements are used to quantify the transition location and growth of the crossflow instability under the influence of FFSs with different heights. Forced monochromatic stationary crossflow vortices experience an abrupt change in their trajectory as they interact with the step geometry. As the boundary layer intercepts the step an increase in the vertical velocity component and an amplification of the crossflow vortices is observed. Near the step, the vortices reach maximum amplification, while dampening downstream. The smaller FFS cases, show a local stabilising effect on the primary stationary mode and its harmonics, while in the higher step cases transition occurs. The analysis of the temporal velocity fluctuations shows a reduction in the region associated with the type-III travelling crossflow modes downstream of the step. In contrast, the velocity fluctuations in the region associated with type-I secondary instabilities increase past the FFS edge. Nonetheless, in the shortest FFS cases, these velocity fluctuations eventually decay below the clean configuration (i.e. without an FFS) levels. This behaviour is linked to a novel transition delay effect for the shortest step height investigated. The findings highlight new physical aspects driving the interaction between an amplified stationary crossflow vortex and an FFS and provide insight into possible transition delay mechanisms using such geometries.

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An experimental study has been carried out to determine the influence of a forward facing-step (FFS) on the laminar–turbulent transition of a swept wing boundary layer. Wind tunnel experiments were conducted at a fixed 3 deg angle of attack and varying Reynolds number between 2.5 and 4.5 million. Moreover, the FFS influence was investigated under unforced (i.e., smooth leading edge) and forced conditions (i.e., using discrete roughness elements). For each test case infrared thermography was used to determine the transition location and spatial organization of the crossflow vortices. In addition, the change in amplification factor was calculated using linear stability theory. Results reveal the importance of considering multiple parameters when estimating the critical FFS height. The unforced cases indicate that one-parameter correlations (i.e., based on the crossflow vortex core height or boundary-layer displacement thickness) might not be sufficient to universally capture the dynamics of these complex flows. Analysis of the forced cases shows that in addition to local parameters (i.e., step height and vortex core height), the FFS influence on transition depends on the stability characteristics of the incoming instability mode. These findings suggest a complex nonlinear interaction between instabilities and surface irregularities, which highlight the need for multiparameter correlations for accurate transition prediction.

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An experimental investigation was carried out to examine the effect of two-dimensional Forward Facing Steps surface irregularities, on the laminar-to-turbulent boundary-layer transition on a 45° swept-wing. For the clean reference case, the numerical boundary-layer flow is calculated from pressure measurements, and a thorough linear stability analysis is performed for all variations of Reynolds number and angle of attack. Infrared thermography is employed to determine the transition-front location which is associated to an N-Factor, calculated from the linear stability analysis. The change in the amplification factor ∆N, caused by the addition of the surface irregularity, is analyzed. The reduction in the critical N-factor is observed to correlate with the estimated cross-flow instability vortex core height to step height ratio and the relative step height. The work presented in this paper is part of an ongoing research project to characterize the effect that surface irregularities have on boundary layer transition. The N-method offers an overview of the phenomena related to FFS, capable of guiding future investigations into the underlying flow mechanisms.

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