The spectral shape, irradiance, direction, and diffuseness of daylight vary regularly throughout the day. The variations in illumination and their effect on the light reflected from objects may in turn provide visual information as to the time of day. We suggest that artists' color choices for paintings of outdoor scenes might convey this information and that therefore the time of day might be decoded from the colors of paintings. Here we investigate whether human viewers' estimates of the depicted time of day in paintings correlate with their image statistics, specifically chromaticity and luminance variations. We tested time-of-day perception in 17th- to 20th-century Western European paintings via two online rating experiments. In Experiment 1, viewers' ratings from seven time choices varied significantly and largely consistently across paintings but with some ambiguity between morning and evening depictions. Analysis of the relationship between image statistics and ratings revealed correlations with the perceived time of day: higher "morningness" ratings associated with higher brightness, contrast, and saturation and darker yellow/brighter blue hues; "eveningness" with lower brightness, contrast, and saturation and darker blue/brighter yellow hues. Multiple linear regressions of extracted principal components yielded a predictive model that explained 76% of the variance in time-of-day perception. In Experiment 2, viewers rated paintings as morning or evening only; rating distributions differed significantly across paintings, and image statistics predicted people's perceptions. These results suggest that artists used different color palettes and patterns to depict different times of day, and the human visual system holds consistent assumptions about the variation of natural light depicted in paintings.

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The study of the light field has become a valuable framework for capturing and analysing the complex distribution of light in natural environments. The directional, spatial, temporal and spectral structure of light, collectively influence the optical information available to an observer and thus impact our perception of the surrounding world. The extended definition of the light field, which is equivalent to the plenoptic function in perceptual studies, incorporates radiance as a function of spectral energy, position, direction, and time in space, quantifying all the optical information available to an observer. However, there is a considerable gap in measuring, describing, and visualizing the properties of the light field in the chromatic domain, which this thesis aimed to address. The thesis focuses on the research question of how to effectively describe, measure, simulate, and visualize the spatiotemporal dynamics of the spectral structure of light fields. To address this research question, We outlined four main objectives in the thesis, which are addressed in separate chapters. The first objective is to investigate the interplay between the colours of surfaces and light sources in 3D indoor scenes, and its effects on the spatial and angular distribution of light. The second objective was to quantify the directional and spatial variations of chromatic light field effects on correlated colour temperature and colour rendering. The third objective was to explore the objective measurement, description, and visualization of the 7D light-field properties of outdoor illumination. Finally, the fourth objective was to examine the relationship between image statistics and perceived time of day in Western European paintings from the 17th to 20th centuries to determine if the representation of lighting in paintings serves as a contextual cue for the time of day.@en

We present a method to capture the 7-dimensional light field structure, and translate it into perceptually-relevant information. Our spectral cubic illumination method quantifies objective correlates of perceptually relevant diffuse and directed light components, including their variations over time, space, in color and direction, and the environment’s response to sky and sunlight. We applied it “in the wild”, capturing how light on a sunny day differs between light and shadow, and how light varies over sunny and cloudy days. We discuss the added value of our method for capturing nuanced lighting effects on scene and object appearance, such as chromatic gradients.

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In everyday scenes, the effective light (the actual light in a space) can be defined as a complex light field, resulting from a mixture of emissive light sources and indirect mutual surface (inter-)reflections. Hence, the light field typically consists of diffuse and directional illumination and varies in spectral irradiance as a function of location and direction. The spatially varying differences between the diffuse and directional illumination spectra induce correlated colour temperature (CCT) and colour rendition variations over the light fields. Here, we aim to investigate the colourimetric properties of the actual light, termed the effective CCT and colour rendition, for spaces of one reflectance (uni-chromatic spaces). The spectra of the diffuse light-field component (light density) and the directional light-field component (light vector) were measured in both physical and simulated uni-chromatic spaces illuminated by ordinary white light sources. We empirically tested the effective CCT and colour rendition for the light density and the light vector, separately. There were significant differences between the lamp-specified CCT and colour rendition and the actual light-based effective CCT and effective colour rendition. Inter-reflections predominantly affected the CCT and colour rendition of the light density relative to the light vector. Treating the diffuse and directional light-field components in a linear model reveals the separate influences of the light source and scene. These effects show the importance of a 3D version of colour checkers for lighting designers, architects or in general computer graphics applications, for which we propose simple Lambertian spheres.

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Research has shown that disentangling surface and illuminant colors was possible based on various scene statistics. This study investigates the statistical cues induced by the chromatic effects of interreflections. We present a numerical analysis of ambiguous spectral pairs, in which the spectral power distribution of the illuminant in one scene matched the surface reflectance function in the other scene and vice versa. If the scenes are flat or convex and perfectly matte (Lambertian), the reflected light spectra of both cases are identical. However, the incident light undergoes interreflections for concave scenes. The spectral power of interreflections will be absorbed spectrally in an exponential way, dependent on the number of interreflections. We found that this causes systematic shifts towards the spectral reflectance peaks, resulting in brightness, saturation and hue shifts. Those paired cases' color differences (CIEDE2000) are so large that humans would be able to observe them if viewed simultaneously. In addition, we find that the color shifts cause qualitatively different gradients for chromatic materials and achromatic light and vice versa. Further psychophysical testing is necessary to see whether the different color shifts for the two cases can be recognized in isolation due to material or light properties. Moreover, the light densities and light vectors are spectrally different for these cases, creating different appearances of 3D objects in non-empty rooms.@en

In natural scenes, the wavelength-dependent sunlight scattering in the atmosphere and the presence of occluders and mutual reflections cause variations in the local illumination's magnitude, direction, and spectral composition as a function of time and space. Yet, unlike the characterization of temporal changes of natural light, these spatial variations have received relatively limited attention. In this paper, we employed the light field concept to quantify those variations and empirically demonstrated that they are significant and how the different contributions of the diffuse and directed parts can be measured.@en

The effective illumination incident on an object in a three-dimensional scene is a geometrically-weighted sum of direct and indirect light. The luminous and chromatic properties of the light field vary spatially and directionally, inducing luminance and chromatic gradients - smooth color variations over objects. When a color combination of a step or gradient produces a pleasing effect, it is said to be harmonious. Previous studies have shown that perception of color harmony is dependent on a complex interplay between hue, chroma and lightness (Ou and Luo, 2006). Further, the visual cues from luminance and chromatic gradients might assist three-dimensional shape recovery (Ruppertsberg et al., 2008). The aim of this research is to investigate the influence of chromatic furnishing materials on the perception of object color harmony and shape, through inter-reflections. Box spaces were rendered with uni-chromatic surfaces and a colored sphere, acting as a probe, in its center, illuminated by a planar white illuminant. 24 room surface colors were sampled systematically in RGB space. The sphere’s color was sampled from the 15 CIE CRI color checker samples. Participants had to rate perceived three-dimensionality (flat disk vs. sphere) and color harmony (disharmonious vs. harmonious) of the rendered sphere under carefully calibrated conditions. Before each session and between trials, participants adapted to an animated noisy mask. A short training session introduced randomly selected stimuli after which the main experiment took place. Of the tested furnishing hues, the bluish rooms resulted in the highest mean color harmony and three-dimensionality scores. Decreasing the furnishing brightness resulted in a major three-dimensionality enhancement, as expected. Reducing the saturation and even more so the brightness of the chromatic furnishing colors enhanced the perceived color harmony of the probe. These effects show the importance of 3D versions of color checkers, here we used spheres, for color testing.@en

The effective illuminance in a real-world scene is a geometrically weighted sum of direct and indirect components, and varies spatially and directionally, which is captured by the so-called light field. The spectral power distribution (SPD) of the indirect illuminance is dependent on that of the direct illuminance and the surface spectral reflectance (SSR) of the scene materials. The SPD of the indirect illuminance was derived to show systematic brightness, saturation and hue shifts due to inter-reflections. Differences between the spectral shapes of the direct and indirect illuminance induce colour rendition variations over the light fields, which we here investigate for uni-chromatic spaces.@en

In complex scenes, the light reflected by surfaces causes secondary illumination, which contributes significantly to the actual light in the space (the "light field"). Secondary illumination is dependent on the primary illumination, geometry, and materials of a space. Hence, primary illumination and secondary illumination can have non-identical spectral properties, and render object colors differently. Lighting technology and research predominantly relies on the color rendering properties of the illuminant. Little attention has been given to the impact of secondary illumination on the "effective color rendering" within light fields. Here we measure the primary and secondary illumination for a simple spatial geometry and demonstrate empirically their differential "effective color rendering" properties. We found that color distortions due to secondary illumination from chromatic furnishing materials led to systematic and significant color shifts, and major differences between the lamp-specified color rendition and temperature and the actual light-based "effective color rendering" and "effective color temperature". On the basis of these results we propose a methodological switch from assessing the color rendering and temperature of illuminants only to assessing the "effective color rendering and temperature" in context too.@en

The human visual system incorporates knowledge about local chromatic and lightness effects of interreflections [1]. Here we study basic principles behind chromatic effects of interreflections using computational modelling and photometric measurements. The colour of interreflections varies as a function of the number of bounces they went through. Using a computational model we found that those colour variations can show brightness, saturation and even hue shifts. Using a chromatic Mach Card, a concave folded card with both sides made of the same colour, we demonstrated those three types of colour effects empirically. Finally, we tested the effects of such coloured interreflections on light fields in 3D spaces. Via cubic spectral illuminance measurements in both computer simulations and full mock up room settings under different furnishing scenarios we measure the chromatic variations of first order properties of light fields. The types of chromatic variations were found to depend systematically on furnishing colour, lighting and geometry, as predicted, and also vary systematically within the light field, and thus throughout the space. This study forms a theoretical and empirical basis for extending our light field framework to the chromatic domain: we will next compare how the basic effects found will work out for natural scenes and do extended spatial measurements of chromatic light fields (over grids of locations in the scenes, altogether forming a unique database). On the basis of this study we expect differential chromatic effects for the different components (ambient, focus, brilliance light) of our framework. Additionally, we expect differential effects of combinations of chromatically different sources (f.i. diffuse lighting by a blue sky plus directed lighting by a yellowish sun) and the scene's material's spectral reflectances. We aim to compare those physical light fields with measurements of visual light fields (including their chromatic properties).@en