Future energy and transport scenarios will still rely on gas turbines for energy conversion and propulsion. Gas turbines will play a major role in energy transition and therefore gas turbine performance should be improved, and their pollutant emissions decreased. Consequently, designers must have accurate performance and emission prediction tools. Usually, pollutant emission prediction is limited to the combustion chamber as the composition at its outlet is considered to be “chemically frozen”. However, this assumption is not necessarily valid, especially with the increasing turbine inlet temperatures and operating pressures that benefit engine performance. In this work, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Chemical Reactor Network (CRN) simulations were performed to analyse the progress ofNOx and CO species through the high-pressure turbine stator. Simulations considering turbulence-chemistry interaction were performed and compared with the finite-rate chemistry approach. The results show that progression of some relevant reactions continues to take place within the turbine stator. For an estimated cruise condition, both NO and CO concentrations are predicted to increase along the stator, while for the take-off condition, NO increases and CO decreases within the stator vanes. Reaction rates and concentrations are correlated with the flow structure for the cruise condition, especially in the near-wall flow field and the blade wakes. However, at the higher operating pressure and temperature encountered during take-off, reactions seem to be dependent on the residence time rather than on the flow structures. The inclusion of turbulencechemistry interaction significantly changes the results, while heat transfer on the blade walls is shown to have minor effects.

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Future transport and energy systems will still rely on gas turbines for energy conversion. The contribution of aviation to the emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutant species is predicted to increase in the near future, both in absolute quantities as well as relative to other sources. Despite historically being one of the greatest contributors to innovation and technology, the aeronautical industry has faced difficulties in implementing radical changes in aircraft configuration, engine architecture and fuel flexibility. Likewise, stationary gas turbines are predicted to be used in energy generation to compensate for the inherently intermittent solar and wind energy sources. This could be done with the utilization of unconventional fuels like hydrogen, biofuels or synthetic fuels. Therefore, gas turbines will play a major role in energy transition and gas turbine performance should be improved and their pollutant emissions decreased....@en

One of the main challenges of future aircraft engines is to achieve low pollutant emissions while maintaining high combustion efficiencies and operability. The Flameless Combustion (FC) regime is pointed as one of the promising solutions due to its well-distributed reaction zones that yield low NOx emissions and oscillations. A dual-combustor configuration potentially facilitates the attainment of FC in the Inter-Turbine Burner (ITB). The development of such burner is dependent on knowledge regarding NOx formation and the parameters affecting it. It is known from the literature that the NOx formation mechanisms are different in FC. Therefore, in an attempt to clarify some of the mechanisms involved in NOx formation at relevant conditions, a chemical reactor network model developed to represent the ITB is explored. The role of prompt NOx was previously shown to be dominant at relatively low inlet temperatures and atmospheric pressure. In order to check these findings, five chemical reaction mechanisms were employed. All of them overpredicted NOx emissions and the overprediction is likely to be caused by the prompt NOx subset implemented in these mechanisms. Higher reactants temperatures and operational pressures were also investigated. Overall NOx emissions increased with temperature and the NOx peak moved to lower equivalence ratios. Operational pressure changed the emissions trend with global equivalence ratio. Leaner conditions had behaviour similar to that of conventional combustors (increase in NOx), while NOx dropped with further increase in equivalence ratio due to suppression of the prompt NOx production, as well as an increase in NO reburning. These trends highlight the differences between the emission behaviour of the ITB with those of a conventional combustion system.

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The flameless combustion (FC) regime is a promising technology for gas turbines, as it potentially yields lower NOx emissions while maintaining high combustion efficiencies. However, the application of FC to gas turbines is still challenging as required conditions for its occurrence depend on several factors such as reactants mixing, residence times, heat losses, and chemical time-scales. Since the mixing of the reactants and incoming fresh air-fuel mixture plays an important role in FC, the aerodynamic characteristics of the combustor are instrumental in determining the combustor emission performance. Focusing on the aerodynamic characteristics, this paper is dedicated to the visualization and description of the flow inside a jet-based combustor designed to operate under FC. The cylindrical combustor has a FLOX® burner head with 12 concentrically placed nozzles, while an acrylic cylinder allowed full optical access to the flow field. The investigation was performed for non-reactive flow. Using Particle Image Velocimetry and a Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes CFD analysis, the flow was visualized and modelled. The simulations were run with the Standard and Realizable k-ε (SKE and RKE, respectively), as well as a Reynolds Stress turbulence model. The effect of modifying the SKE model C1ε constant was also investigated. In the experimental campaign, the influence of combustion chamber length, nozzle diameter, and jet velocity were investigated with respect to flow structure, recirculation ratios and entrainment behavior. The results show that the flow structure is mainly dependent on nozzle diameters, while the jet momentum is the correct parameter to assess the recirculation impact of a certain jet flow. The numerical investigation shows that the turbulence intensity at the boundaries is an important parameter to accurately simulate the jet spreading. None of the used turbulence models fully represented the flow field. Nonetheless, the SKE model with model C1ε = 1.44 was the best at representing the jets penetration and vortex core positions, and the recirculation ratio values predicted by it were in good agreement.@en

The Flameless Combustion (FC) regime has been pointed out as a promising combustion technique to lower the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) while maintaining low CO and soot emissions, as well as high efficiencies. However, its accurate modeling remains a challenge. The prediction of pollutant species, especially NOx, is affected by the usually low total values that require higher precision from computational tools, as well as the incorporation of relevant formation pathways within the overall reaction mechanism that are usually neglected. The present work explores a multiple step modeling approach to tackle these issues. Initially, a CFD solution with simplified chemistry is generated [both the Eddy Dissipation Model (EDM) as well as the Flamelet Generated Manifolds (FGM) approach are employed]. Subsequently, its computational cells are clustered to form ideal reactors by user-defined criteria, and the resulting Chemical Reactor Network (CRN) is subsequently solved with a detailed chemical reaction mechanism. The capabilities of the clustering and CRN solving computational tool (AGNES—Automatic Generation of Networks for Emission Simulation) are explored with a test case related to FC. The test case is non-premixed burner based on jet mixing and fueled with CH4 tested for various equivalence ratios. Results show that the prediction of CO emissions was improved significantly with respect to the CFD solution and are in good agreement with the experimental data. As for the NOx emissions, the CRN results were capable of reproducing the non-monotonic behavior with equivalence ratio, which the CFD simulations could not capture. However, the agreement between experimental values and those predicted by CRN for NOx is not fully satisfactory. The clustering criteria employed to generate the CRNs from the CFD solutions were shown to affect the results to a great extent, pointing to future opportunities in improving the multi-step procedure and its application.@en

Since its discovery, the flameless combustion (FC) regime has been a promising alternative to reduce pollutant emissions of gas turbine engines. This combustion mode is characterized by well-distributed reaction zones, which potentially decreases temperature gradients, acoustic oscillations, and NO_x emissions. Its attainment within gas turbine engines has proved to be challenging because previous design attempts faced limitations related to operational range and combustion efficiency. Along with an aircraft conceptual design, the AHEAD project proposed a novel hybrid engine. One of the key features of the proposed hybrid engine is the use of two combustion chambers, with the second combustor operating in the FC mode. This novel configuration would allow the facilitation of the attainment of the FC regime. The conceptual design was adapted to a laboratory scale combustor that was tested at elevated temperature and atmospheric pressure. In the current work, the emission behavior of this scaled combustor is analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and chemical reactor network (CRN). The CFD was able to provide information with the flow field in the combustor, while the CRN was used to model and predict emissions. The CRN approach allowed the analysis of the NO_x formation pathways, indicating that the prompt NO_x was the dominant pathway in the combustor. The combustor design can be improved by modifying the mixing between fuel and oxidizer as well as the split between combustion and dilution air.

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Since its discovery, the Flameless Combustion (FC) regime has been seen as a promising alternative combustion technique to reduce pollutant emissions of gas turbine engines. This combustion mode is often characterized by well-distributed reaction zones, which can potentially decrease temperature gradients, acoustic oscillations and, consequently NOx emission. However, the application of FC to gas turbines is still not a reality due to the inherent difficulties faced in attaining the regime while meeting all the engine requirements. Over the past years, investigations related to FC have been focused on understanding the fundamentals of this combustion regime, the regime boundaries, its computational modelling, and combustor design attempts. This article reviews the progress achieved so far, discusses the various definitions of the FC regime, and attempts to point the directions for future research. The review suggests that modelling of the FC regime is still not capable of predicting intermediate species and pollutant emissions. Comprehensive experimental databases with conditions relevant to gas turbine combustors are not available, and moreover, many of the current experiments do not necessarily represent the FC regime. By analysing the latest developments in computational modelling, the review points to the most promising approaches for the prediction of reaction zones and pollutant emissions in FC. The lessons learned from previous design attempts provide valuable insights into the design of a successful gas turbine engine operating under the FC regime. The review concludes with some examples where the gas turbine architecture has been exploited to advance the possibilities of FC in gas turbines.

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The Flameless Combustion (FC) regime is promising to the attainment of lower emissions in gas turbine engines. The well-distributed reactions, with low peak temperatures present in the regime result in lower emissions and acoustic oscillations. However, the attainment of the FC regime on gas turbine engines has not been successful, as most of the previous design attempts failed with respect to combustion efficiency, operational range, or difficulty to integrate in an engine. Along with a novel aircraft concept, a conceptual design of a gas turbine engine with two sequential combustion chambers was presented.1 As the aircraft would allow the use of cryogenic fuels, the first (and main) combustion chamber envisages the use of hydrogen or natural gas. The inter-turbine burner (ITB) is the subsequent chamber, and would operate under the FC regime with conventional fuels. @en

Alternatives to combustion in aircraft engines are not expected to become feasible in the decades to come. As the aviation traffic increases and regulations become more stringent, reduction in pollutant emissions are needed. The Flameless Combustion (FC) regime has been one of the promising candidates to achieve lower emissions in gas turbine engines. This combustion regime is characterized by welldistributed reactions, with low peak temperatures, resulting in lower emissions and acoustic oscillations. However, the attainment of the FC regime is not straight forward considering the conditions and requirements of gas turbines. Most of the previous combustor design attempts failed to provide broad operational range, high combustion efficiency, or were difficult to integrate in an engine. Along with a novel aircraft concept, the European project AHEAD (Advanced Hybrid Engines for Aircraft Development) resulted in the conceptual design of a gas turbine engine with two sequential combustion chambers1. As the aircraft concept allows the use of cryogenic fuels, the first combustion chamber was designed to operate with hydrogen or natural gas. The second is the inter-turbine combustor herein studied, which would operate under the FC regime burning conventional fuels. @en