Understanding the fundamental mechanisms of oxidative ageing in bitumen is considered of paramount importance in order to take steps towards durable binders able to tackle distresses related to this phenomenon which deteriorates the asphalt performance. This paper focuses on the identification of the intermediate and final oxygenated products after short- and long-term laboratory ageing simulated with rolling thin-film oven testing (RTFOT) and pressurised ageing vessel (PAV) respectively. Three binders were investigated in this study, two originated from the same wax-free crude source, while the third was obtained from a different source, containing natural wax, and followed a different manufacturing process. Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy demonstrated a clear increase of the sulfoxide and carbonyl functional groups upon ageing for all the binders independently of origin, manufacturing or performance. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy showed an increase of the organic carbon-centred radicals after short-term ageing (RTFOT), whereas after PAV these radicals remained constant in the two wax-free binders originating from the same crude source, and even decreased for the third, waxy binder. Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (¹H NMR) spectroscopy reported differences in the relative distribution of protons between the binders in the unaged state, and similar minor changes after both ageing steps regardless of the binder's crude source and distillation. The results of Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) revealed that SO_x- and (OH)_x-containing compounds are produced after the sequentially occurring short- and long-term ageing in both wax-free bitumens, whereas an almost constant behaviour of aliphatics after PAV ageing can be seen for the same bitumens. Finally, the strengths and weaknesses of each of these experimental techniques were reviewed and compared versus the obtained results and possible ageing mechanisms.

Oxidative ageing in bituminous materials is considered to be one of the most important factors for distress types in road applications. The increasing interest in oxidative ageing has highlighted the need for a thorough understanding of the oxidation mechanisms at molecular level. This paper offers some insight in the validity of the proposed hypotheses about the oxidation routes of bitumen, the fast- and the slow-rate route, reflecting on previous studies. Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy were utilised for this verification. To elucidate the uncertain formation of sulfoxides, an additional surface investigation with Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) was performed. The findings of the aforementioned techniques reveal the existence of the oxidation products reported previously and contribute to the understanding of the oxidation mechanisms. Overall, this research strengthens experimentally the hypotheses of the dual-oxidation routes of bitumen.