Adversarial examples remain a critical concern for the robustness of deep learning models, showcasing vulnerabilities to subtle input manipulations. While earlier research focused on generating such examples using white-box strategies, later research focused on gradient-based black-box strategies, as models' internals often are not accessible to external attackers. This paper extends our prior work by exploring a gradient-free search-based algorithm for adversarial example generation, with particular emphasis on differential evolution (DE). Building on top of the classic DE operators, we propose five variants of gradient-free algorithms: a single-objective approach (GADE), two multi-objective variations (NSGA-IIDE and MOEA/DDE), and two many-objective strategies (NSGA-IIIDE and AGE-MOEADE). Our study on five canonical image classification models shows that whilst GADE variant remains the fastest approach, NSGA-IIDE consistently produces more minimal adversarial attacks (i.e., with fewer image perturbations). Moreover, we found that applying a post-process minimization to our adversarial images, would further reduce the number of changes and overall delta variation (image noise).@en

Developments in the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI), and particularly large language models (LLMs), have created a 'perfect storm' for observing 'sparks' of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) that are spurious. Like simpler models, LLMs distill meaningful representations in their latent embeddings that have been shown to correlate with external variables. Nonetheless, the correlation of such representations has often been linked to human-like intelligence in the latter but not the former. We probe models of varying complexity including random projections, matrix decompositions, deep autoencoders and transformers: all of them successfully distill information that can be used to predict latent or external variables and yet none of them have previously been linked to AGI. We argue and empirically demonstrate that the finding of meaningful patterns in latent spaces of models cannot be seen as evidence in favor of AGI. Additionally, we review literature from the social sciences that shows that humans are prone to seek such patterns and anthropomorphize. We conclude that both the methodological setup and common public image of AI are ideal for the misinterpretation that correlations between model representations and some variables of interest are 'caused' by the model's understanding of underlying 'ground truth' relationships. We, therefore, call for the academic community to exercise extra caution, and to be keenly aware of principles of academic integrity, in interpreting and communicating about AI research outcomes.

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Deep learning (DL) models are known to be highly accurate, yet vulnerable to adversarial examples. While earlier research focused on generating adversarial examples using whitebox strategies, later research focused on black-box strategies, as models often are not accessible to external attackers. Prior studies showed that black-box approaches based on approximate gradient descent algorithms combined with meta-heuristic search (i.e., the BMI-FGSM algorithm) outperform previously proposed white- and black-box strategies. In this paper, we propose a novel black-box approach purely based on differential evolution (DE), i.e., without using any gradient approximation method. In particular, we propose two variants of a customized DE with customized variation operators: (1) a single-objective (Pixel-SOO) variant generating attacks that fool DL models, and (2) a multi-objective variant (Pixel-MOO) that also minimizes the number of changes in generated attacks. Our preliminary study on five canonical image classification models shows that Pixel-SOO and Pixel-MOO are more effective than the state-of-the-art BMI-FGSM in generating adversarial attacks. Furthermore, Pixel-SOO is faster than Pixel-MOO, while the latter produces subtler attacks than its single-objective variant.@en